Cell phones Essay

Every time a person answers his/hers cell phone, their safety and the safety of others around them are being greatly jeopardized. Cell Phones today pose a major risk to the human body and civilian population. When cell phones heat up they emit radiation that known to increase the chances of someone getting cancer. Besides cancer, other medical complications; such as, arthritis and damaged sleep have increased thought the use of cellular devices. Not only do cell phones cause medical problems, but they also pose a huge security threat with personal information being easily stolen. Overall, the safety of humans is being compromised by the use of the seemingly harmless device, cell phones. Many doctors and scientists are claiming that cell phones are causing medical complications. For instance, the National Cancer Institute states, â€Å"Cell phones emit radiofrequency energy, a from of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation, which can be absorbed by tissues closest to where the phones is held† (â€Å"Cell Phones and Cancer Risk†). What this is basically saying, is that the radiation being put out from the cell phones are damaging vital tissues, which is known to increase the risk of cancer. This links back to the main idea of the overall safety of humans, showing that cell phones do cause a serious risk factor to the human body. Another common concern with cell phones is the theory that texting can cause arthritis; â€Å"Repetitive motion can cause pain and inflammation of the basal joint. It can even lead to thumb arthritis† (Eustice). The article confirms that the constant motion of the thumbs can indeed cause arthritis. The safety of the consumer is being compromised when a popular means of communication; such as texting, can lead to a major medical complication. Recent studies show that headaches are increasing tremendously due to cell phones: â€Å"Radiation from mobile phones damages sleep and cause headaches, according to a study by telephone makers† (carter). In this study, researchers found an increasing amount of headaches were occurring with people who use cell phones regularly; opposed to people who rarely use them or don’t use them at all. An increase in headaches is very dangerous to the safety of the human body and can be a gateway to many other complications down the road. After an extensive amount of research, doctors and scientists have found that cell phones do cause medical issues to the human body. Cell phones security is a fairly new issue brought up by a numerous amount of concerned citizens, with the fear that their safety is being jeopardized. As technology increases, more and more people are resorting to devices, such as cell phones, to get them thought the day: â€Å"The more people rely on cell phones and tablets, the more attractive these devices become as targets to thieves and other nefarious types† (Gahran). With all of these devices being used constantly, crooks can easily retrieve the personal information any personal information any person puts out there through the devices they are using. This has become a huge safety issue due to the fact that private information is being stolen from people who expect their information on their cell phones to be safe and secure. A man was shown an application on his cell phone that could link up to other people’s cell phones: â€Å"’It made all the contacts start jumping over to this phone,’ said Gooden† (Kridler). Gooden explained that the application he was shown let him easily access his wife’s phone contacts. His friend that introduced this application to Gooden then went to explain that hackers usually take the contact information and dial premium-rate numbers. The safety of the people who are in others contact information is being compromised when they have result in paying a fee for â€Å"calling† these premium-rate numbers because of someone else stealing their numbers. Boktah, an expert security hacker, states â€Å"Most people have no idea how vulnerable they are when they use their cellphones† (Murphy). Bokath’s job is to hack into cell phones to find and express all of the flaws in the devices, thus demonstrating how easy it is for a hacker to do the same. With all the scamming going on, consumers need to be aware of what they do on their cell phones to protect themselves, as well as the safety of others. Safety from personal information being stolen by hackers happens to be key concern to numerous amounts of people; this way people will not be liable for paying fees or having their identity stolen. Cell phones safety is a key concern, which the vast majority of users brood over. Cellular devices have been known to cause cancer; as well as, an increasing amount of medical problems. Some of these problems are arthritis and damaged sleep. Medical complications are not the only concern; a breach in security is another top concern for people. In essence, safety is top priority for humans, and cell phones are compromising that safety.

Preventing Alzheimers Disease Health And Social Care Essay

Alzheimer ‘s disease is a disease named after Alois Alzheimer who foremost described it in 1906. It is besides known as Senile Dementia of the Alzheimer Type or Alzheimer ‘s and is the most common signifier of Dementia. It is an incurable, degenerative and terminal disease and is normally diagnosed in people of over 65 old ages of age, nevertheless, there are hints of its oncoming in much earlier ages ( Wegesin & A ; Stern, 2004, p.646 ) .The 2006 statistics indicated that 26.6 million people suffered from this disease universe. The common symptoms for this disease are thought to be age related concerns or emphasis manifestations. The disease is characterized by memory loss, such as trouble in retrieving late learned facts in earlier phases and confusion, temper swings, linguistic communication dislocation, crossness and aggression and general backdown in the advanced phases. The causal effects for this disease are still unknown with fingers indicating to plaques and tangles in the encephalon. Most interventions available for this disease offer diagnostic benefit but fail to turn to the hold or patterned advance of the disease. Since it ‘s incurable and degenerative, the direction of patients is indispensable. The disease is known to put a great load on health professionals who experience psychological, economic, societal and physical force per unit areas while taking attention of sick person ‘s of this disease. This disease is one of the most dearly-won diseases in the developed universe. GuideAge Study: Test of EGb 761 for bar of Alzheimer ‘s disease among the aged with memory ailments. The primary aim of the survey was to find the consequence of EGb761 in intervention on the rate of transition from memory ailments to Alzheimer ‘s disease utilizing survival analysis. The chief marks for this survey were ambulatory patients aged 70 old ages who exhibited memory ailments during a GP or memory centre audience. Those with nonsubjective memory damage or clinically relevant symptoms of anxiousness and depression were nevertheless excluded. Participants were so required to do one-year visits to a memory centre where a series of neuropsychological trials were conducted to measure the cognitive map and cognitive position. The functional position was evaluated with the Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Questionnaire ( Andrieu et. al. , 2008, p.406 ) . The survey recognized that primary and secondary bar schemes are desperately needed for Alzheimer ‘s disease as its prevalence continues to lift in industrialised states, with statistics demoing that it has presently affected over 24 million people worldwide. There is besides a high load associate with this disease. The schemes have ab initio proved to be effectual in cut downing mortality, morbidity, and wellness attention costs. Available interventions better cognitive symptoms and estrogen or satin related interventions are secondary bar schemes for Alzheimer ‘s disease ( Wegesin & A ; Stern, 2004, pp.647-648 ) . The basic scientific discipline and clinical informations indicate that estrogen therapy permeates healthy nerve cells with a survival advantage when challenged with a neuro-toxic agent. Greater benefit would hence be predicted if estrogen therapy is begun while nerve cells are still healthy and non biologically compromised ( p.650 ) . The estrogen advantage to healthy nerve cells provides plausible account for why estrogen can be good in forestalling neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer ‘s ( Brinton, 2004, p.419 ) . In add-on, in the intervention of AD, randomized placebo-controlled surveies have provided grounds of efficaciousness. The survey was spread out in a five twelvemonth program, and the primary aim was to find the consequence of intervention with EGb 761 on the rate of transition from memory ailments to dementia of Alzheimer type utilizing survival analysis. The survey design: incorporated a web of doctors to enroll topics ; the eligibility standard was validated in one of 25 mention memory centres. Coordination was by the infirmary mention centre located in Toulouse France ( Andrieu et. al. , 2008, p.407 ) . Age, residential location of patients, mean socio-cultural and instruction degrees, and self-generated coverage of memory ailments were the chief considerations for patient eligibility. Ocular sharp-sightedness and presence of drusen, unnatural pigmentary epithelial tissue and vascularization were considered in the diagnostic standards for age related muscular devolution. Apolipoprotein E, a genotypic determiner for intervention response was taken from blood samples while urine samples were taken to find isoprostan, a possible biochemical alternate marker of result. Spontaneously reported inauspicious effects were recorded for safety rating intents ( p.407 ) . In the intervention procedure, topics were randomized at the proof visit by having EGb 761 or a duplicate placebo. Blinding was ensured by indistinguishable visual aspect of placebo and active drug while colour marker was ensured by utilizing a brown pigment. Behavioral appraisal was through the disposal of neuropsychological trials for appraisal of cognitive map ; the cognitive position was besides evaluated blending MMS and CDR ; Functional position was evaluated utilizing the Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Questionnaire. Other appraisals involved balance perturbations, assessed by finding one ‘s ability to stand on one leg, posturography and diagnostic standards for sarcopenia ( pp.407-409 ) . Outcome steps entailed independent adjudication by four clinicians non connected to the survey to determine unvarying instance consequences. Changes in CDR dementedness tonss and alterations in public presentation on neuropsychological trials were considered in the secondary result steps. The study described the cognitive map and disablement in a population composed of 2854 patients who complained of memory jobs. These patients were younger and better educated with high MMSE tonss and longer continuances of memory ailments. Primary attention was the chief context of the survey. Patients who exhibited dementedness, anxiousness and depression symptoms were besides excluded from the survey so as to enrich the survey sample in patients whose memory ailments were related to underlying cognitive troubles other than emotional influences. From the screened population, over 60 per centum scored 0.5 or more on the Clinical Dementia Rating Scale therefore a comparative grade of cognitive damage was recognized. This hence supported old findings where bulk of patients reported ailments in the general population therefore grounds of convergence between aged patients with subjective memory ailments and those with nonsubjective steps of cognitive damage ( p.410 ) . The consequences hence imply that many aged individuals with cognitive damage are undiagnosed within the community and that a pro active attitude from practicians would assist place such people and pave manner for proviso of appropriate attention. CDR would besides be concluded as a sensitive agencies of observing cognitive damage amongst the aged. TheGuideAge is an of import and advanced tool for bar of AD in Europe. A recent survey provided grounds of Gingko biloba infusion effectivity in forestalling cognitive diminution in aged individuals. To farther find the efficaciousness of Gingko biloba, the GuideAge survey provided the needed informations from a big figure of topics. It would besides be effectual analyzing the development of cognitive map and see hazard factors as forecasters of transition from memory ailments to AD in the population. From this analysis hence, it can be concluded that preventative steps for AD are executable owing to the ability to obtain informations every bit good as initiate drug usage in a big sample of the population. Preventing Alzheimer ‘s disease: fact or fiction The prevalence is Alzheimer ‘s disease is significantly increasing in the United States. Presently, the population of those with this disease stands at 4.5 million with an estimated addition of between 11 and 16 million in the following 50 old ages. In add-on, explosive alterations in engineering would ensue in a great challenge in reflecting the mildest signifiers of cognitive shortage. The starchlike plaque in the encephalon remains the trademark pathology of Alzheimer ‘s disease and the amyloid cascade, provides marks for intercessions. The chief purpose of the intercessions is to cut down harm ensuing from starchlike plaque load ( Grossman & A ; Dyk. , 2008, p.887 ) . Significant positive attacks have been made, polar to the designation of diagnostic intervention of Alzheimer ‘s disease and the designation of conditions associated with increased intervention hazards. The success of true bar is nevertheless considered every bit fabricated as there is less informations to back up the claim that the aforesaid hazards cut down the incidences of AD. Several advantages can be drawn from concentrating on the bar of the disease ; foremost, it would spread out the period of high quality of life in aging populations, a hold of oncoming of the disease by one twelvemonth would significantly cut down its prevalence rate, and costs associated with the disease would be minimized ( Grossman & A ; Dyk, 2008, p.888 ) . Despite advancement in the decrease of the disease, bar schemes are still in the grapevine. Medical intercessions for this disease are characterized as primary, secondary and third. Primary: focal point on disease bar ; secondary: on decrease in morbidity in preclinical persons: and third, on remedy, palliation and rehabilitation. Grossman & A ; Dyk ( 2008 ) acknowledge that current therapies for Alzheimer ‘s disease do be. Tacrine was approved in 1993 by the US FDA as the first intervention for AD. The bureau besides introduced donepezil, rivastigime and galantamine as other intervention drugs. They further discourse that primary bar refers to the bar of disease in an unselected population tests to this demand to inscribe a big figure of topics with few exclusion standards and infuse simple cheap ratings of results, with long observation and monitoring periods. The length of clip for bar tests and topics ‘ registration, consequence into high disbursals therefore a substi tution of the bar test, the ‘add on ‘ protocol permits the ratings of multiple spheres in a individual clinical test cohort ( p.900 ) . Both primary and secondary bar tests require careful attending to safety. The agents selected for bar surveies are often referred to as ‘neuroprotective. ‘ A term used to distinguish agents expected to cut down cognitive diminution instead than alleviation of symptoms. Preventive mechanisms purpose at cut downing starchlike plaque by changing metamorphosiss or protecting cells from starchlike toxicity. These mechanisms are largely proposed based on research lab and carnal surveies as few markers of biological mechanisms available in worlds exist. Several categories of agents with encouraging consequences have been tested. These are clearly discussed below. First of all, lipid-lowering medicines, the HMG-CoA reductase are known to impact greatly on knowledge, dementedness and Alzheimer ‘s disease by cut downing cholesterin degrees in the organic structure of worlds ( Sparks et. al. , 2008, p.418 ) . Second, tramiprosate, a 3-amino-1-propanasulfonic acid ab initio developed as a pharmaceutical intervention was examined in a two phased survey of 58 patients with mild to chair Alzheimer ‘s disease over three months. Patients having tramiprosate experienced a decrease in Alzheimer ‘s. Neurochem subsequently reported that tramiprosate would be used as a nutraceutical. Third, immunotherapy initiated by utilizing filaments for the development of Alzheimer ‘s vaccinum was addressed in Schenk ‘s 1999 study as an option for regressing starchlike plaque. There was grounds of a patient showing clearance of AI? hint sedimentations from their cerebral mantle, and a significant microglial response. It was further conclude d that supplanting of AI? , even when embedded in plaques, is possible in worlds when immunotherapeutic techniques are used. Third, is the usage of enzyme inhibitors. Amyloid plaque remains a trademark pathology for Alzheimer ‘s with the amyloid cascade supplying marks for intercessions to assail implicit in mechanisms. Therefore, intercessions to cut down the amyloid plaque load are widely proposed. Furthermore, the control of high blood pressure is grounds associated with decreased hazard of cognitive damage and dementedness, features of Alzheimer ‘s. Some surveies have shown that effectual control of high blood pressure is associated with cognitive benefit. Hormone replacing schemes are besides seen as good mechanisms for the bar of Alzheimer ‘s. There is an feeling that estrogen may be good in keeping cognitive map and detaining dementedness. The benefit of estrogen accrues from the fact that the endocrine acts as a neurotrophin in the pyramidal cells of the CAI part which is known to devolve in Alzheimer's.Astrogen protects the hippocampal nerve cells therefore reduces nervous AI? coevals. Antioxidative schemes on the other manus employ the fact that oxidative emphasis plays a important function in aging and Alzheimer ‘s disease. The usage of antioxidants such as Vitamin C and E is associated with the decrease of hazard of dementedness. Nutritional supplementation, considers that dietetic and nutritionary addendums have an consequence on the hazard of Alzheimer ‘s. From several surveies conducted, the usage of Ginkgo biloba, a herbal addendum indicated an betterment in knowledge. Another clinical test on Salvia officinalis was studied for its possible benefit on knowledge in patients diagnosed with Alzheimer ‘s. Significant benefits were discernible between the end point and baseline tonss on cognitive steps of the intervention group compared with the placebo group ( Doraiswamy, 2002, p.816 ) . Last, nonpharmacological intercessions such as physical exercising are observed as options to protect the aged from cognitive diminution. A Meta analysis conducted reported benefits from physical exercising on functional public presentation, behaviour and knowledge steps in patients with cognitive damage and dementedness. The execution of Cognitive Motor Interventions on 38 patients in one twelvemonth which involved cognitive exercising, societal and psychomotor activities indicated an betterment in temper and subsequent tonss against a control group ( Kreil et. al. , 2010, p.17 ) . Alzheimer ‘s disease is a common wellness concern amongst the aged. While effectual intervention is available, the bar mechanisms are non yet good understood. Cholesterol lowering, other cardiovascular hazard decrease, starchlike metamorphosis and antioxidant mechanisms every bit good as environmental sweetenings have proved as plausible bar options ( Doraiswamy, 2002, p.818 ) . Evidence-based Approaches to Preventing Alzheimer ‘s disease. Non modifiable hazard factors for Alzheimer ‘s include: Age ; this remains as the strongest hazard factor for dementedness, peculiarly for Alzheimer ‘s. The hazard doubles every five old ages in persons above 65 old ages. The hazard nevertheless increases by stopping point to 50 % after 85 old ages. Family history ; hints of Alzheimer ‘s in households ‘ histories for 5 % or less of instances. Hereditary or environmental factors related to households are major influences of this disease. Familial factors ; early Alzheimer happening before 65 old ages histories for 6-7 % of all Alzheimer's.13 % of these clearly exhibit autosomal dominant transmittal over more than one generation.30-70 % of mutants are in presenilin-1 cistron, 10-15 % are in the amyloid precursor protein cistron, and less than 5 % are in the presenilin-2 cistron ( Bassil & A ; Grossberg, 2009, p.30 ) . Modifiable hazard factors on the other manus include cardiovascular hazard factors such as high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, lipemia, intoxicant, depression, metabolic syndrome, smoking among others ( Bassil & A ; Grossberg, 2009, p.31 ) . From surveies conducted, the consumption of lipid-lowering medicines indicated a decrease in dementedness ( Sparks, 2008, p.419 ) . Other possible helpful agents to forestall Alzheimer ‘s include: Antioxidant vitamins, the encephalons of Alzheimer ‘s patients contain lesions typically associated with free extremist exposure every bit good as elevated degrees of endogenous antioxidants. Antioxidants cut down the toxicity of AI? in encephalon surveies of Alzheimer patients. This therefore laid a footing for the appraisal of the function of antioxidants such as vitamins E and C and curcumin for the bar of Alzheimer ‘s. Curcumin has anti-inflammatory, anti- amyloid and antioxidant belongingss and is every bit a promising agent i n the bar of Alzheimer ‘s from the ascertained informations ( Bassil & A ; Grossberg, 2009, p.32 ) . Fish and Omega-3 fatty acids. Surveies have shown that consumption of concentrated fat, entire fat and entire cholesterin addition the hazard of dementedness. Reduced degree of Omega 3 fatty acids has been linked to increased hazard of dementedness therefore high fish ingestion would change by reversal the tendency in hazards related to dementia and cognitive diminution ( p.33 ) . Consequences form a community based survey affecting nondementaited persons indicated that attachment to a traditional Mediterranean diet was associated with important decrease in the hazard of incidents related to Alzheimer ‘s disease. Fruits and veggies are besides associated with improved cognitive public presentation in aged individuals. Fruits are particularly linked to decrease in dementedness. Some surveies have nevertheless associated high ingestion of veggies with decrease in cognitive diminution ( p.34 ) . Datas on intoxicant usage and cognitive map in the aged draws assorted consequences. The complexness in these consequences is brought approximately by the dose and type of intoxicant taken. The moderate ingestion of vino is associated with decreased hazard of dementedness and Alzheimer ‘s disease. On the other manus, high ingestion of intoxicant which consequences in alcohol addiction may take to cognitive diminution ( p.34 ) . A randomised controlled test late showed that moderate sums of intoxicant may detain age- associated cognitive diminution. Others include ; caffeine consumption, endocrine therapy, NonSteroid Anti-Inflammatory Drug ( NSAID ) therapy and homocysteine ( Ho et. al. , 2008, pp.86-88 ) . From this information it can be concluded that, dementedness is the consequence of a set of implicit in pathological procedures, some which are preventable. Familial factors, age and household history are disclosed as the major non-modified hazard factors while modified hazard factors range from alcohol addiction, high blood pressure, and diabetes mellitus to depression. All this contribute to the development of Alzheimer ‘s and plausible preventative solutions are hence obtained from these jobs. In add-on, familial exposure is seen to modify most of the hazards associated with Alzheimer ‘s. Although there is deficient grounds to cement primary bar recommendations on dementedness, doctors may recommend taking actions such as take downing cholesterin, blood force per unit area and homocysteine degrees and commanding diabetes. Three constituents of life style, that is, societal, mental and physical are associated with a brilliant decrease in the hazard of dementedness, and Alzheimer ‘s disease. Population based longitudinal surveies have supported the hypothesis that societal, cognitive and physical activity are reciprocally associated with the hazard of dementedness, Alzheimer ‘s disease and cognitive damage. Physical exercising has been thought to heighten encephalon neurtotrophic factors and modify programmed cell death. Dementia is lowered by continuing musculuss mass every bit good as forestalling falls and attendant caput injury ( Kreil et. al. , 2010, pp.18-19 ) . Evidence further shows that exercising can continue optimum cardiovascular map, better regional intellectual blood flow and deter shot and micro vascular disease. NSAID therapy involves the intervention of Alzheimer ‘s with anti-inflammatory agents which slow the patterned advance of dementedness and suppress its oncoming. NSAIDs portray increased possibilities of take downing degrees of amyloidogenic AI?42 protein ( Bassil & A ; Grossberg, 2009, p.35 ) . From the above information, it is deserving observing that Alzheimer ‘s disease can be prevented utilizing both pharmacological and non-pharmacological options. The integrating of dietetic options and physical exercising may besides be efficient in accomplishing the preventative end of Alzheimer ‘s disease.

Human Resources Practice Essay

1. Introduction The HR Profession Map was developed using the following design principles: †¢ It describes what you need to do, what you need to know and how you need to do it within each professional area at four bands of professional competence. †¢ It covers behaviours as well as the technical elements of professional competence required in the HR profession. †¢ It is organised around areas of professional competence, not organisation structures, job levels or roles. †¢ The scope of the Map will cover the breadth and depth of the HR profession, from small to large organisations, from fundamental to sophisticated practice, local to global, corporate to consulting, charity to public sector, traditional to progressive. †¢ It has the versatility to be used in part, or viewed as a whole, with the core professional areas acting as the key or centre that is relevant to all. 2. Activity 1 Summarise the HRPM The Profession Map captures what successful and effective HR people do and deliver across their specialist profession, and sets out the required activities, behaviours and knowledge. Covering 10 professional areas and eight behaviours, set out in four bands of competence the Map covers every level of the HR profession, from band one at the start of an HR career through to band four for the most senior leaders. The Map has been designed to be relevant and applicable to HR professionals operating anywhere in the world, in all sectors and in organisations of all shapes and sizes. Professional Areas 1. Insights, Strategy and Solutions 2. Leading HR 3. Organisation Design 4. Organisation Development 5. Resource and Talent Planning 6. Learning and Development 7. Performance and Reward 8. Employee Engagement 9. Employee Relations 10. Service, Delivery and Information Behaviours 1. Curious 2. Decisive Thinker 3. Skilled Influencer 4. Personally Credible 5. Collaborative 6. Driven to Deliver 7. Courage to Challenge 8. Role Model (www.cipd.co.uk) 2.1Insights, Strategy and Solutions Human Resources professionals work from a deep business, contextual and organisational understanding to develop actionable insight, and prioritise HR strategies that make the most difference at any given time. You develop insight-led solutions, prioritised and tailored around a good business, contextual and organisation understanding – identifying opportunities and risks and acting on them. Business Vision and strategy of the organisation Products/services and customer profiles Financial and non-financial performance information Contextual Your sector and related regulations/legislation Political, economic, social, technological and environmental issues. Organisation Structure, processes, governance Culture, values, behaviours Key relationships, stakeholders, how decisions get made This understanding – and the resulting insights – allow us to create prioritised and situational HR strategies that make the most difference and build a compelling case for change. Includes these topics: Building a picture Developing actionable insight Delivering situational HR solutions that stick Building capacity and capability -Working with agility Organisation context determines the influence and priority of stakeholder roles and individuals, it also determines how readily new systems/ applications or methods can be adopted, and whether we can get there. If customers / principal stakeholders come from different contexts, this may systematically shape the goals and requirements 2.2 Leading HR Resourcing Band 1 Human Resources Professionals need to have a good knowledge of the principles and procedures for organisations recruitment, selection, training, compensation and benefits of labour relations and personnel information systems. A sound knowledge of business and management principles involved in strategic planning, modelling, leadership technique, production methods, and coordination of people and resources. Motivating, developing, and directing people, as they work, identifying the best people for the job also been able to identify potential for succession planning. . 3. Activity 2 Timely and Effective Service With any organization, we will typically find the customers HR supports are within recruiting, employee relations, training, etc, all pretty much the same, regardless of department, our customers are anyone who uses the HR services we provide we interact with supervisors, managers, employees, external candidates, and external organizations. The way that HR interacts with each of these groups is different depending on what is being delivered, but in the general sense, our customers are all as important as each other. 3.1 Employees Employees want professional HR support from real people and HR need to be responsive and clear about what services we offer. HR need to be easy to contact and able to respond quickly and effectively. Obviously employees require accurate pay and benefits, on time. They also want to be given the opportunity for training and development. 3.2 Managers Managers want an HR function which understands the workforce and can help management balance employee and business needs. They want a proactive HR function which identifies issues before they happen and works with managers to address them. They would like HR to help them with their most challenging people issues including motivation, change and skills development. An HR function which does not understand the business and the workforce completely loses its value. The needs of both employees and managers are sometimes be conflicting. For example, managers require a higher level of production and sometimes longer working hours whereas employees tend to want more time off and more focus on a work/life balance. A good HR department needs to work with both groups to find the best balance. A way of resolving these conflicts is to focus on the overall needs of the organisation, ensuring that the right employees are recruited and retained will help this. The skills and abilities of all employees need to be aligned to their job role and as HR we need to provide development and training to ensure productivity is reached and to manage turnover of employees. Coaching and counselling employees will also help and providing an effective reward and recognition system. 3.3 Recruitment Agencies HR and recruitment agencies are committed to developing and maintaining closer relationships, the outcomes for both parties are more positive, and from a strategic perspective, it’s the formation of these stronger partnerships that bring mutual business benefits and added value. Good reasons why an organisation would use recruitment agencies Gain access to job-seekers (both active and passive)  source candidates from more specific talent pools and match them to an  organisation’s vacancies reduce the time and in-house resources dedicated to recruitment use a range of specialist skills offered by recruitment experts Access specialist services such as screening, filtering and profiling of candidates Gain flexibility in recruitment to meet cyclical/ market demand Get expert opinion about and knowledge of current recruitment legislation Benchmarking purposes – access to salary data and local market knowledge. However in past experience working with some recruitme nt agencies it can become an expensive option as they tend to charge anywhere from 12.5 percentage of the starting salary upwards and a finders fee if the candidate does become permanent. 3.4 Communication Communication Type Advantages Disadvantages Email Easy to send Fairly quick to send Can send 365 days of the year Can send to a group of people at once Email can get stuck in spam and not received Attachments could contain viruses Internet could go down and may not receive mail for sometime Phone call Calls can be made 24 hours a day 7 days a week Get your message across and gain feedback immediately You cannot see each other’s body language Things could get mis-interpreted Costly Fax Can send exact copies of documents Easy to train how to use No immediate response Could misdial number sending documents to wrong person Poor quality of received document 3.5 Effective Service Delivery An effective HR services for all employees is seen as be supportive, not to dilute the responsibility of people management. Also have the ability to coach line managers, especially around managing performance. 3.6 Delivering Service HR should obtain thorough feedback from internal customers, line managers, senior managers and employees. This should cover both what they need from HR, and their user experience of current services. Such feedback could generate a clear and more effective HR function within the organisation. It can provide fresh insights and help the HR function to focus its efforts in these areas could add value to the business. 3.7 Difficult Customers Assuming that the employee provides value to the company and possesses redeeming qualities, there are ways to deal with difficult employees. Most often, managers will simply ignore problematic staffers. Managers who live by this rule hope the problem will just go away; that these people will somehow turn themselves around or stop being troublesome. Ignoring the situation is the wrong solution to what could likely become a progressive problem. It is important to take action as soon as the negative behavior pattern becomes evident when left untouched, this problem will only escalate. (http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/201950#ixzz2h4AjsnQf) 3.8 Resolving Complaints Employee complaints alert us to potential problems within the business Depending on the type of complaint that comes in you’re going to want to keep relevant portions of your staff appraised of it while simultaneously safeguarding the privacy of the individuals involved. It’s important to be transparent in these situations because â€Å"employees are probably going to know this on the office gossip vine anyway,† says Kelly. â€Å"They want to see that management is aware of it too and that management does take action and demonstrates a commitment to a higher ethical standard.† (http://www.inc.com/guides/2010/04/handle-employee-complaints.html/1)

Becoming a nurse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Becoming a nurse - Essay Example Other than treating patients without discriminating amongst them, I need to ensure that while treating patients I take into account the education, socioeconomic class, gender and ethnicity into consideration in order to deal with different patients in different ways. For example: needs of patients belonging to a lower socioeconomic class would be different as compared to those who belong to a higher socioeconomic class. Since their backgrounds are different there is ought to be difference in the causes of the diseases they are experiencing and these different causes need to be considered while creating treatment plans for them as different treatment plans will help eliminate different issues. I even need to ensure that I consider the personal traits of the patients while dealing with them. For example some patients are quite aggressive in nature while others are quite calm. While dealing with aggressive patients I need to keep myself calm and help them in understanding their

American History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 6

American History - Essay Example In the Encyclopedia Smithsonian, Roosevelt is labeled as the â€Å"Icon of the American Century,† right after the war against Spain in Cuba, he was chosen to be a governor in 1898 and as a vice president in 1900 (National Portrait Gallery). He strived to be the person anyone wants to be despite the tragedies that he have undergone – the death of his mother and wife. With the assassination of President McKinley, Roosevelt’s fate has been decided, he became the youngest US president at that time. He made sure to make the government be of service with the people – he made sure that despite the growing inequalities, President Roosevelt normalized huge businesses’ trusts to create fair competition and he also closely watched the railroads, labor and processed food industry (National Portrait Gallery). He also did everything he could to maintain the status of USA in world affairs and leadership. As a president, he was characterized as progressive and mode rn, he also believed that it was his duty as president to lead the initiatives that will be beneficial to them and to the welfare of their country. He was also one of the few president who used their executive powers in the same level of the other branches of the government and he believe that the powers of the president should also be put under limitations and restrictions (National Portrait Gallery). Roosevelt is only one of the many that can be called an American hero. There is Jane Addams who was a social reformer who led the international initiatives to intervene between the countries who are going against one another in World War I, and Charlotte Perkins Gilman who was a feminist author who reasoned out that women should be capable of participating actively in the realm of politics and that women should be economically independent – all of these were written in â€Å"Women and

Ethical Theories Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ethical Theories - Essay Example This philosophy formed a basis for Liberalism and Libertarianism. The opponents say that it’s impossible to determine true parameters for measuring and comparing human happiness among people. While the pleasure of the sadist is viewed as having equal value to the pleasure of the altruist, the suffering of others would offset any derived pleasure for the sadist; it’s superficial, temporary. It takes awhile to evaluate the pros and cons of an action so that while we can’t know the total picture immediately, enough of the consequences of an action are usually known so as to avoid the most pain for most people. This approach only views the end results of actions as opposed to the original intentions. Kantianism was developed by Immanuel Kant in the 1700s. He is considered one of the forefathers of philosophy of the mind and epistemology. His predecessors, Gottfried Leibniz and Christian Wolf, along with Rene Descartes were attempting to find a rational way to approac h beliefs about God without all the emotionalism of religion. He asserts that people act on their beliefs which are deeply held underlying principles; human beings are basically rational and the world is full of uncontrollable events, therefore rationality is the ultimate good. Rational beliefs should be universalized. It is the original intention of an action that determines its value, as acts themselves should be performed for their inherent value, not for the consequences they produce. His work is divided into four categories: 1) pure theoretical reason, 2) practical reason and ethics, 3) aesthetics and teology, and 4) rational religion. The problem with Kantianism is that there is no single rule that is applicable in every situation to characterize an action; it doesn’t have a way to resolve conflicts between rules. There is no room for aberrancy with regards to moral laws. It didn’t take into consideration the feelings of the human, only the rational thought proce sses. Social Contract Theory has been around since Socrates, although Thomas Hobbs is considered the modern founder in the middle 1600s. His proponents, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, later expounded on his theory to formulate much broader politically applicable social theories. In essence, it is the belief that individuals in their natural state come together to form a mutually consensual agreement where they agree to limit themselves and their behavior to that which is beneficial to the governance of all. We are self-interested beings, which in our natural state of being, are governed only by our own sense of personal power and conscience. It formed a theory of why we need government in order to remain civilized, the people give up some rights in order to benefit from a greater social order. Opponents assert that while it outlines our rights and obligations as people in the whole community of mankind, it doesn’t allow for explaining the full human experience in terms of psychology and motivation. It depends on the greater consensus of the group to determine how the whole group will be treated without respect for individuality or human considerations. If the majority of the group is consensual with a particular limit of some sort, then the whole society is bound by that same limit. It violates contractual theory in that contracts require all interested parties to agree to the contract, not just the majority. Divine Command Theory has been a

Strategies emerging market MNEs employ Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Strategies emerging market MNEs employ - Essay Example Their point is to achieve a certain level of competitive advantage, but such kind of advantage can hardly be generated if some essential strategies or strategic actions will not be employed. Concerning this point, it is important to create an illustration on how exactly some firms create strategies in order to generate their portion in the pie. Knowing how some firms established their market especially those new entrants is as good as finding how they initiate strategies in order to make a difference. Regarding this, the work at hand covers the points elucidating the unique strategies that the emerging market multinational enterprises (MNEs) employ in pursuing globalization or international expansion in comparison to the moves of MNEs from developed countries. The traditional MNE is characterised by foreign direct investment (FDI), which generally is all about firm-specific capabilities created at home country and momentarily expanded towards country-by-country way of internationalis ation (Guillà ©n and Canal, 2009). According to Guillà ©n and Canal, this model was most popular much of the post-World War II. However, today, new existing MNEs from emerging markets are trying to make a difference in order to go for an international expansion. Knowing what these strategies are is the main focus of the work at hand. Prior to this, it is also important to understand the traditional model of MNE first to provide the essential foundation of comparison to its new MNE counterparts comprising new emerging MNEs and those from developed economies. Understanding traditional model of MNE Strengths pertaining to technology, marketing and managerial capability were important common features of the old model of MNE during the post-World War II (Guillen and Canal, 2009). According to Guillen and Canal, advanced multinational firms in Japan, North America and Europe participated in this activity and eventually created their market share and initiated international expansion. Fi rst, one can spot the point that multinational companies rely on their ability to employ advanced technologies. The implementation of technology is important in the issue of globalisation or international expansion (Alvarez and Marin, 2013; Holm and Sharma, 2006). The transfer of technology was viewed a significant component of global expansion because that will have to ensure operation and formulation of product or service offerings sustained at the most convenient and fast-paced approach. On the other hand, the idea of initiating marketing strategy is founded by the ability of the firm to understand the needs in the market. However, the idea might be eventually confined within the basic consideration of subsidiary marketing knowledge as this can be the essential foundation on how to go for international expansion (Holm and Sharma, 2006). Finally, the traditional model of MNE has to include the concept of managerial capability, as this has significant impact on the resource profile of the subsidiaries (Manev, 2003). This will have to fuel the right decision-making process in order to sustain survival of the firm in the international setting where there are other potential factors to keep constantly in mind such as culture, politics, social concerns and other considerations. In addition to all of these, Guillen and Canal added that the traditional model of MNE employed traditional product differentiation strategies and vertically integrated structures. All of these have specific advantages as integrated along with the existing practices of the emerging market MNEs, but at some point they may also provide a significant explanation as to why the emerging market and developed economy MNEs may have outsmarted the traditional

Setting a Home Network Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Setting a Home Network - Term Paper Example Besides the easy handling of the XP ICS, by the XP computer as the ICS host the other benefit is using the internet connection Firewall. 3. Choice of a network technology The commonly available choices are the Ethernet and wireless LANs. When using an Ethernet LAN its essential to have the network interface card, or the NIC that ought to be fitted in each computer and then run the cabling between the computers. Just in case you don’t find the idea of opening the computer to fit/or to install the network card good for you, then get yourself a USB adaptor to assist you. Considering the size of the network, you may also find it necessary to have a network hub or router to provide interconnection between the PCs on the LAN. Two PCs can get by using an RJ-45 crossover cable; three or more computers require a hub or a multi – speed hub (also called a switch). For high – speed internet connection, a high – speed router is a good option. If you decide to have a wi reless LAN as your choice, you may also need an NIC for each and every PC (although there are versions that use USB adaptors as well) the major advantage of home environments is that a wireless LAN eliminates the need for cabling. Although on the contrary wireless LANs tend to be slower, less robust and most likely more expensive than the traditional Ethernet LANs. Wireless LANs particularly do not live up to their stated working range and you may encounter factors such as your construction and design in your home, in addition to interference from other devices which affect the performance of your wireless LAN. You may also need to add an expensive Access point to be able to extend the range of the LAN and more so it may not be sufficient. What is essential here is that if you make a choice of going wireless route, then ensure that the store will refund your money if the LAN will proof not to be reliable in performance within the range specified. 4. Make a list of hardware needed Co me up with a list that outlines the hardware you need for each computer, without forgetting any cabling, and purchase them. If you find it a little dazzling to make an appropriate choice and the configurations, then consider purchasing a networking kit. This kind of kits contain all that is needed to set up a two or three Pc network. If it’s possible, then look up for hardware that contains the Windows XP logo that indicates its fully compatible with XP. 5. Install the adaptors. Make an installation of the network adaptors and also install your modem on the ICS host computer(you may also let the computers connect to the internet independently by installing modems on each one of them) 6. Cable the computers Physically cable the computers and hubs or routers together, as usual you may not need to undertake this if you have decided to use the wireless option. When installing an Ethernet network and you have a lot of cabling work to be done then its preferable that you get a prof essional to come in and do this kind of work for you. It may not be cheap but to ensure that the work is perfectly done with minimal damage done to the walls, ceilings and the floors. 7. Switch it on Power all computers, printers and other peripherals. 8. Connect the ICS host Get to the ICS host computer and ensure it’s connected to the internet. 9. Run the network setup Wizard on

Comprehensive Strategic Case Analysis of Real Chocolate Study

Comprehensive Strategic Analysis of Real Chocolate - Case Study Example The company is noted for its perfection in hand made gourmet chocolate made from finest quality ingredients with no artificial preservatives added. This paper presents a strategic analysis of the case real chocolate company using some analytical tools such as the PESTLE framework, Porter's five forces and competitive advantage etc. The paper is structured as follows, in part one using the PESTLE framework the paper analyses the environment in which the company is operating based on the case, the Five forces framework of Porter also help us to beef our analysis. Part two of the paper carries out an internal analysis of the real chocolate company, by using basic financial ratios, the SWOT matrix, to identify its competitive advantage and resources capabilities while part three of the paper now uses Porters generic strategy and the TOWS matrix. In the concluding part of the paper, using the balance scorecard some recommendation are made. PESTEL framework is used here because the analysis is concerned with the Macro-environmental influences which can better be analysed by use of the PESTEL framework. Johnson et al (2006) states that the PESTEL framework is a framework that can be used to categorise the factors that influence the business environment of an organisation into six main types including: Political Influences, Economic influences, Technological influences, Social Influences, Environmental influences, and Legal influences. (See appendix 1). The political environment of the United States was unstable following the period of the case with the then Republican government loosing popularity because of the war in Iraq the tooth for tat with Iran, its neglect of Russian on key international issues. The situation was further made worst by its war for peace captioned "war against terror". Thus, at the time of the case, the poor political climate of the States must have affected the operations of real chocolate company international expansion. In 2006, the political situation of the countries was the beans are grown affected production negatively. Economic factors that affected real chocolate companies from the case, prices vary due to monetary fluctuations, raw materials are sources from other countries, the trade between US and Canada were the stores are based are liable to exchange rate fluctuations. Social factors include growth in population. It was reported in June 2006, that the black pod, frosty pod, and witches' broom di seases could adversely affect the cacao beans if these plant diseases are not controlled. Obesity is becoming a major concern in the USA. In 1986, the Centers for Disease Control reported that just eight states had 10 to 14 percent of the residents obese. Technological factor offers real chocolate company an opportunity of automated production without affecting

Nursing Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Nursing Case Study - Essay Example Prolonged immobilization is one of the main causes for DVT (Poelkens, et.al., p. 111). In this case, the patient’s decompression surgery could have contributed to the formation of the thrombus, and such thrombus later travelled up his chest cavity, manifesting as pulmonary embolism. Initially, a thrombus which separates from its original site then travels through the circulatory system then on to the inferior venacava (Smulders, p. 23). The right ventricle then pushes the thrombus to the pulmonary arteries where the thrombus eventually lodges. Since the pulmonary arteries branch out to smaller blood vessels, the thrombus will likely lodge itself there (Smulders, p. 23). Multiple thrombi may be seen in the pulmonary area and they may be big or microscopic in size; the bigger ones may totally or partially block the major branches of the pulmonary artery. Such thrombus cuts the blood flow in the pulmonary arteries and this can cause increased resistance to blood flow in the pulmonary blood vessels. In instances of 50-60% decreased perfusion, pulmonary hypertension, right ventricle strain, and cardiac heart failure may occur (McGill University). Pulmonary reflexes also cause the release of humoral substances which then lead to the constriction of pulmonary blood ve ssels, thereby increasing vascular resistance. The pulmonary embolism, along with the patient’s lumbar decompression is causing the manifestation of his other symptoms including: tachypnoea, pleuritic chest pain, tachycardia, dyspnoea, and fever. Assessment The patient’s pulmonary embolism was diagnosed; however it is still important to note the clinical presentation of this condition in the patient. Since the patient is at a high risk for having PE, it is crucial to note the manifestations of this incident. Some common symptoms include: dyspnoea, pleuritic chest pain, tachypnoea, and tachycardia (Fedullo and Tapson, p. 1247). However, these symptoms cannot sufficiently establish a finding of PE. These symptoms are all apparent in this patient. These may all indeed point to his pulmonary embolism, however, some of these symptoms may be due to his lumbar decompression surgery. Other diagnostic tests may be used in order to detect pulmonary embolism. The first test is the D-dimer test which evaluates

Terrorism and Human Rights in Kenya Dissertation

Terrorism and Human Rights in Kenya - Dissertation Example This not withstanding, terrorism is gradually emerging to be one major setback to the protection of human rights in Kenya. This situation has created a situation that is best described by Karanja (2003) who states that â€Å"The word terrorism sends a cold chill down the spine of every Kenyan.† Indeed as far as terrorism is concerned, one attack is not small enough to be neglected. This is because acts of terrorism come with so much emotional and psychological traumas; not to talk of physical pain and agony, loss of property and most unfortunately death of human beings. Even as these negative effects of terrorism affect humanity and more specifically residents of Kenya, one other area of concern that has gained so much prominence and come to the table of discussion is the issue of human rights of people in Kenya who suffer in the various events of terrorists attacks. In 1956, 1998 and 2002, Kenya suffered various degrees of terrorist bombings of which Kenya suffered catastroph ic effects. Not quite unusual, Kenya responded to these bombings with counter-terrorism. These counter terrorisms however worsened Kenya’s plight: especially that of ordinary citizens as their human right protection and general security came under threat. It is against this background that this research has been set off to investigate the relationship between terrorism and human rights issues in Kenya. It is against this background that this research has been set off to investigate the relationship between terrorism and human rights issues in Kenya. The research proposal shall critically analyze the evolution of human rights in Kenya, history of terrorism in Kenya,

Economy versus the Environment Essay Example for Free

Economy versus the Environment Essay Down to Earth by Ted Steinberg highlights the role of nature in US history. Steinberg provides historical events, from minute detail of migrating birds to monumental breaking up of Pangeae, to support his analysis and for readers to fully grasp the course of American history. He maintains that the continuous interaction between human and nature drives them to evolve. But the truth, of course, is that human has tendencies to disregard nature to achieve their ideal standard of living. Moreover, human’s present consumption puts the life of future generation at risk. Long before the European settlement in the region, America’s natural resources were already being threatened. Native American hunters utilized the world around them according to their needs. These early hunters drove mammoths to extinction, as well as the giant ground sloths and other prehistoric species. Many of them used fire to clear landscape which did served their purpose but harmed other plants and animals. Eventually, however, they became gifted stewards of their environment. Their activities, hunting, gathering and farming, were influenced by the cycles of nature. The early exploration dictated by personal consumption quickly followed by exploitation. Migrants poured in pursuit of gold and silver in the English colonies which was abandoned for intensive harvesting of lucrative crops or the trapping of animals. The slang â€Å"buck† for money in America refers to deer hides called buckskins, being exported for glove making and other forms of leather manufacturing. This economic system persists until the end of the colonial period. By mid-1800s, regions were identified by the kind of cash crops they produced. Tobacco, â€Å"King Cotton,† rice from South Carolina lowlands, timber from the virgin forests of the Great Lakes, Texas cattle and wheat from the Great Plains. The system made the nation wealthy but at a devastating cost to biodiversity. Steinberg pointed out that the major factor that brought the ecological change in America is â€Å"putting a price tag on the natural world. † Cities were expanding, farmers were becoming more specialized in their cash crops and companies were pushing for more profits. Nature was transformed to articles of trade. Lumber companies, for instance, led to much deforestation which led to loss of other plants and habitat of animals. The citizens of the US seemed to have a sense of â€Å"ecological amnesia,† oblivious to the effect on nature of ruthless exploitation despite the mounting evidence. Aside from lumber companies, other businesses and industries abused the natural resources for profit to further degrade the environment. A common man specializing in one type of cash crop had to rely on other farmers to provide for the needs not met by his own produce. Rivers where fish used to spawn were dammed and converted to companies’ energy source. Nature was completely ignored in the interest of commerce and industry. As trade and commercialization intensifies so as reliance of everyone on someone else. Economic activity, both production and consumption, relates to the environment in two ways: the environment provides the raw materials for production, and through the process of production and consumption, we emit wastes into the environment (Worster, 1994). However, human wants are limited while resources are finite. Demand always exceeds supply. So what happens now if we continue to strive to obtain more goods and services from our limited supply of non-renewable resources? Our present and future generations are in peril. Economic theories of trade argue that a country should concentrate on trading and producing goods and services where they have the comparative advantage (Krugman Obstfeld, 2008). The comparative advantage in production is achieved if the input that was used is abundant in the country. For instance, labor intensive goods should be traded by countries with large population, while countries should concentrate in producing capital intensive goods if they are abundant in capital. This exactly what the early traders did. They traded according to their comparative advantage, maximized their profit and yes, abused the environment to further their gains. The economic thinking that competitiveness as a function of efficiency of labor and capital is outmoded (Epping, 2001). In other parts of the world, industries are starting to factor in the efficient way of using their natural resources. These efficiencies benefit countries, companies and local communities. Japan and Germany use half the energy input of American industry in their products. Energy represents about 10 percent of the cost of production and so they achieve with their efficiency about a five percent comparative advantage in world markets relative to US goods. The idea is to have a sustainable supply of both non-renewable and renewable resources relative to demand, to use the natural resources in a more efficient way to make the goods and services of a country, a company or a community more competitive in the market. We do not want to be the generation that kills everything. References Epping, Randy Charles (2001). A Beginner’s Guide To World Economy. New York: Random House, Inc. Krugman, P. Obstfeld, M. (2008). International Economics: Theory and Policy. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Steinberg, Ted (2002). Down To Earth (pp. 1-115). New York: Oxford UP. Worster, Donald (1994). Nature’s Economy: The History of Ecological Ideas. United Kingdom: Cambridge UP.

Impact of Monetary Policy on Indian Industry

Impact of Monetary Policy on Indian Industry INTRODUCTION Monetary Policy is essentially a Monetary Policy is essentially a programme of action undertaken by the programme of action undertaken by the Monetary Authorities, generally the Monetary Authorities, generally the Central Bank, to control and regulate the Central Bank, to control and regulate the supply of money with the public and the supply of money with the public and the flow of credit with a view to achieving flow of credit with a view to achieving pre-determined macro-economic goals. At the time of inflation monetary policy seeks to contract aggregate spending by seeks to contract aggregate spending by tightening the money supply or raising tightening the money supply or raising the rate of return. OBJECTIVES To achieve price stability by controlling inflation and deflation. To promote and encourage economic growth in the economy. To ensure the economic stability at full employment or potential level of output. SCOPE OF MONETARY POLICY The scope of monetary policy depends on two factors: 1. Level of Monetization of the Economy In this all economic transactions are carried out In this all economic transactions are carried out with money as a medium of exchange. This is with money as a medium of exchange. This is done by changing the supply of and demands for done by changing the supply of and demand for money and the general price level. It is capable money and the general price level. It is capable of affecting all economics activities such as of affecting all economics activities such as Production, Consumption, Savings, Investment Production, Consumption, Savings, and Investment etc. 2. Level of Development of the Capital Market Some instruments of Monetary Policy are work through capital market such as Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) etc. When capital market is fairly developed then the Monetary Policy effects the developed economies. OPEN MARKET OPERATIONS The open market operations is sale and purchase of government securities and Treasury Bills by the central bank of the country. When the central bank decides to pump money into circulation, it buys back the government securities, bills and bonds. When it decides to reduce money in circulation it sells the government bonds and securities. The central bank carries out its open market operations through the commercial banks. DISCOUNT RATE OR BANK RATE POLICY Discount rate or bank rate is the rate at which central bank rediscounts the bills of exchange presented by the commercial bank. The central bank can change this rate increase or decrease depending on whether it wants to expand or reduce the flow of credit from the commercial bank. WORKING OF THE DISCOUNT RATE POLICY A rise in the discount rate reduces the net worth of the government bonds against which commercial banks borrow funds from the central bank. This reduces commercial banks to borrow from the central bank. When the central bank raises its discount rate, commercial banks raise their discount rate too. Rise in the discount rate raises the cost of bank credit which discourages business firms to get their bill of exchange discounted. CASH RATE RATIO The cash reserve ratio is the percentage of total deposits which commercial banks are required to maintain in the form of cash reserve with the central bank. The objective of cash reserve is to prevent shortage of cash for meeting the cash demand by the depositors. By changing the CRR, the central bank can change the money supply overnight. When economic conditions demand a contractionary monetary policy, the central bank raises the CRR. And when economic conditions demand monetary expansion, the central bank cuts down the CRR. STATUTORY LIQUIDITY REQUIREMENT In India, the RBI has imposed another reserve requirement in addition to CRR. It is called statutory liquidity requirement. The SLR is the proportion of the total deposits which commercial banks are statutorily required to maintain in the form of liquid assets in addition to cash reserve ratio. CREDIT RATIONING When there is a shortage of institutional credit available for the business sector, the large and financially strong sectors or industries tend to capture the lions share in the total institutional credit. As a result the priority sectors and essential are of necessary funds. Below two measures are generally adopted: Imposition of upper limits on the credit available to large industries and firms. Charging a higher or progressive interest rate on the bank loans beyond a certain limit. CHANGE IN LENDING MARGINS The banks provide loans only up to certain percentage of the value of the mortgaged property. The gap between the value of the mortgaged property and amount advanced is called Lending Margin. The central bank is empowered to increase the lending margin with a view to decrease the bank credit. MORAL SUASION The moral suasion is a method of persuading and convincing the commercial banks to advance credit in overall economic interest of the country. Under this method the central bank writes letter to hold meetings with the banks on money credit matters. EXPANSIONARY POLICY / CONTRACTIONARY POLICY An Expansionary Policy increases the total supply of money in the economy while a Contractionary Policy decreases the total money Supply into the market. Expansionary policy is traditionally used to combat a recession by lowering interests rates. Lowered interest rates means lower cost of credit which induces people to borrow and spend thereby providing steam to various industries and kick start a slowing economy. A Contractionary Policy results in increasing interest rates to combat inflation. An Economy growing in an uninhibited manner leads to inflation. Hence increasing interest rates increase the cost of credit thereby making people borrow less. Due to lesser borrowing the amount of money in the system reduces which in turn brings down the inflation. A Contractionary Policy is also known as TIGHT POLICY as it tightens the flow of money in order to contain Inflationary forces. INCREASE OR DECREASE THE LENDING RATES The RBI makes an adjustment in its lending rate (Repo Rates) in order to influence the cost of credit. Thereby discouraging borrowing and hence reduces brings reduction in the system. RBI BANK Flow of Money Leading to reduced liquidity By increasing interest rates Whenever the liquid in the system increases, the RBI intervenes to stabilize the system. The Central Bank does this by issuing fresh bonds and treasury bills in open market. This tool was extensively used at the time when dollar inflows into our economy were very high resulting in rupee appreciating. In order to stabilize the exchange rates, RBI first bought additional dollars thereby stabilizing the rate exchange. RBI Freshly issued Bonds/ T- Bill Open market Open market CRR By increasing the CRR, the RBI decreases the lending capacity of the bank to the extent of the increase in the ratio increase in the ratio. E.g. of the CRR is increased from 7.5% to 8.5% the banks were deprived of lending to the extent of 75 basis points of their deposit value. MONETARY POLICY OF INDIA OVERVIEW Historically, the Monetary Policy is announced twice a year April-September and (October-March). The Monetary Policy has become dynamic in nature as RBI reserves its right to alter it from time to time, depending on the state of the economy. The Monetary policy determines the supply of money in the economy and the rate of interest charged by banks. The policy also contains an economic overview and provides future forecasts. The Reserve Bank of India is responsible for formulating and implementing Monetary Policy. The Monetary Policy aims to maintain price stability, full employment and economic growth. Emphasis on these objectives have been changing time to time depending on prevailing circumstances. For explanation of monetary policy, the whole period has been divided into 4 sub periods: Monetary policy of controlled expansion (1951 to 1972)1972) Monetary Policy during Pre Reform period (1972 to 1991)to 1991) Monetary Policy in the Post-Reforms (1991 to 1996)1996) Easing of Monetary policy since Nov 1996 MONETARY POLICY OF INDIA Monetary policy of controlled expansion (1951 to 1972) To regulate the expansion of money supply and bank credit to promote growth. To restrict the excessive supply of credit to the private sector so as to control inflationary pressures. Following steps were taken: Changes in Bank Rate from 3% in 1951 to 6% in 1965 and it remained the same till 1971. Changes in SLR from 20% in 1956 to 28% in 1971 Select Credit Control: In order to reduce the credit or bank loans against essential commodities, margin was increased. As a result of the above changes, the supply of money increased from 3.4% (1951 to 1956) to 9.1 (1961 to 1965). Monetary Policy during Pre Reform period (1972 to 1991) Also known as the Tight Monetary policy: Price situation worsened during 1972 to 1974. Following Monetary Policy was adopted in 70s and 80s which were mainly concerned with the task neutralizing the impact of fiscal deficit and inflationary pressure. Changes in CRR to the legally maximum limit of 25% Changes in SLR also to the maximum limit to 38.5% Monetary Policy in the Post-Reforms 1991 to 1996 The year 1991-1992 saw a fundamental change in the institutional framework in setting the objective of monetary policy. It had twin objectives which were Price stability and economic growth. Following instruments were used: Continuing the same maximum CRR and SLR of 25% and 38.5%, mopped up bank deposits to the extent of 63.5%. In order to ensure profitability of banks, Monetary Reforms Committee headed by late Prof. S Chakravarty, Reforms Committee headed by late Prof. S Chakravarty, recommended raising of interest rate on Government recommended raising of interest rate on Government Securities which activated Open Market Operations (OMO). Bank rate was raised from 10% in Apr 1991 to 12% in Oct 1991 to control the inflationary pressures. Easing of Monetary policy since Nov 1996 In 1996-97, the rate of inflation sharply declined. In the later half 1996-97, industrial recession ripped the Indian economy. To encourage the economic growth and to tackle the recessionary trend, the RBI growth and to tackle the recessionary trend, the RBI eased its monetary policy. Introduction of Repo rate- Repo rate increased from 3% in 1998 to 6.5% in 2005. This instrument was 3% in 1998 to 6.5% in 2005. This instrument was consistently used in the monitory policy as a result of rapid industrial growth during 2005-06. In the current monetary policy, the Repo rate was cut from current monetary policy, the Repo rate was cut from 5.00% to 4.75%. Reverse Repo rate Through RRR, the RBI mops up liquidity from the banking system. In the current monetary policy, the Repo rate was cut from 3.50% to 3.25%. Flow of credit to Agriculture The flow of credit to agriculture has increased from 34,013 (9.2% of overall credit) in 2009 (Rs. in crore). Reduction in Cash Reserve Ratio The CRR which was at 15% until 1995 gradually reduced to 5% in 2005. The CRR remained unchanged in the current monetary policy. Lowering Bank rate The Bank rate was gradually reduced from 12% in 1997 to 6% in 2003. Since then the Bank Rate from 12% in 1997 to 6% in 2003. Since then the Bank Rate has remained unchanged to 6%. Review of 2009/10 Monetary policy The Policy Review projects GDP growth at 6% this FY due to slackening private consumption and investment demand. The RBI set its inflation projection for March 10 at 4% (currently at -1.21%). The RBI also projects the CPI to come down into the single digit zone. Assurance of a non-disruptive borrowing in 2009-10. Recently, the Government increased the borrowing plan from Rs. 2.41 lakh crore to 2.99 Lakh crore because of ample liquidity in the market due to slow credit growth. The fiscal stimulus packages of the Government and monetary easing and regulatory action of the Reserve Bank have helped to arrest the moderation in growth and keep our financial markets functioning normally. RBIs Indicative Projections 2009-2010 (Actual Numbers) 2010-2011 (April 2010 policy targets) GDP 7.2 8 (with an upward bias) Inflation (Based on WPI for March end) 9.9 5.5 Money Supply (March end) 17.3 17 Credit (March end) 17 20 Deposit (March end) 17.1 18 GROWTH RBIs revised growth rate is 8% with an upward bias as the indian economy is on recovery path. Growth in industrial sector and service sector are expected to continue. The export and import sector has also registered a strong growth. INFLATION Inflation is projected to be at 5.5% for FY 2010-11. As per RBI inflation is no longer driven by supply side factors alone. Overall demand pressures on inflation are also beginning to show signs, pushing RBI to increase rates even before the official policy of 2010. MONETARY MEASURES The Bank rate has been retained at 6 %. The repo rate is now 5.25% which has 5% in 2009-2010. The reverse repo has increased from 3.5% to 3.75%. The cash reserve ratio of scheduled bank has increased from 5.75% to 6%. The expected outcomes of the actions are: Inflation will be contained and inflationary expectations will be anchored. The recovery process will be sustained. Government borrowing requirements and the private credit demand will be met. Policy instruments will be further aligned in a manner consistent with the evolving state of the economy. IMPACT OF THE OUTCOMES Growth with stability The average growth rate of the Indian economy over a period of 25 years since 1980-81 has been impressive at about 6.0 per cent, which is a significant improvement over the previous three decades, when the annual growth rate was only 3.5 per cent. Over the last four years during 2003-07, the Indian economy has entered a high growth phase, averaging 8.6 per cent per annum. The acceleration of growth during this period has been accompanied by a moderation in volatility, especially in industry and services sectors. An important characteristic of the high growth phase of over a quarter of century is resilience to shocks and considerable degree of stability. We did witness one serious balance of payments crisis triggered largely by the Gulf war in the early 1990s. Credible macroeconomic, structural and stabilization programme was undertaken in the wake of the crisis. The Indian economy in later years could successfully avoid any adverse contagion impact of shocks from the East Asian crisis, the Russian crisis during 1997-98, sanction like situation in post-Pokhran scenario, and border conflict during May-June 1999. Seen in this context, this robust macroeconomic performance, in the face of recent oil as well as food price shocks, demonstrates the vibrancy and resilience of the Indian economy. The Reserve Bank projects a real GDP growth at around 8.5 per cent during 2007-08, barring domestic and external shocks. Poverty and unemployment The sustained economic growth since the early 1990s has also been associated with noticeable reduction in poverty. The proportion of people living below the poverty line (based on uniform recall period) declined from 36 per cent in 1993-94 to 27.8 per cent in 2004-05. There is also some evidence of pick-up in employment growth from 1.57 per cent per annum (1993-94 to 1999-2000) to 2.48 per cent (1999-2000 to 2004-05). Consumption and investment demand Indias growth in recent years has been mainly driven by domestic consumption, contributing on an average to almost two-thirds of the overall demand, while investment and export demand are also accelerating. Almost one-half of the incremental growth in real GDP during 2006-07 was on account of final consumption demand, while around 42 per cent was on account of the rise in real gross fixed capital formation. The investment boom has come from the creation of fixed assets and this phenomenon has been most pronounced in the private corporate sector, although fixed investment in the public sector also picked up in this period. According to an estimate by the Prime Ministers Economic Advisory Council, the investment rate (provisional) crossed 35 per cent in 2006-07 from 33.8 per cent in 2005-06. A reasonable degree of price stability High growth in the last four years has been accompanied by a moderation of inflation. The headline inflation rate, in terms of the wholesale price index, has declined from an average of 11.0 per cent during 1990-95 to 5.3 per cent during 1995-2000 and to 4.9 per cent during 2003-07. The trending down of inflation has been associated with a significant reduction in inflation volatility which is indicative of well-anchored inflation expectations, despite the shocks of varied nature. Although, inflation based on the wholesale price index (WPI) initially rose to above 6.0 per cent in early April 2007 it eased to 3.79 per cent by August 25, 2007. Pre-emptive monetary measures since mid-2004, accompanied by fiscal and supply-side measures, have helped in containing inflation in India. The policy preference for the period ahead is strongly in favour of price stability and well-anchored inflation expectations with the endeavour being to contain inflation close to 5.0 per cent in 2007-08 and in the range of 4.0-4.5 per cent over the medium-term. Monetary policy in India would continue to be vigilant and pro-active in the context of any accentuation of global uncertainties that pose threats to growth and stability in the domestic economy. Improved fiscal performance Yet another positive outcome of developments in recent years is the marked improvement in the health of Government finances. The fiscal management in the country has significantly improved consistent with targeted reduction in fiscal deficit indicators after the adoption of the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act, 2003 by the Central Government. The finances of the State Governments have also exhibited significant improvement since 2003-04 guided by the Fiscal Responsibility Legislations (FRLs). With gross fiscal deficit of the Central Government budgeted at 3.3 per cent of GDP in 2007-08, the FRBM target of 3.0 per cent by 2008-09 appears feasible. The revenue deficit is budgeted at 1.5 per cent of GDP for 2007-08; the FRBM path envisages elimination of revenue deficit in 2008-09. External sector Indias linkages with the global economy are getting stronger, underpinned by the growing openness of the economy and the two way movement in financial flows. Merchandise exports have been growing at an average rate of around 25 per cent during the last four years, with a steady increase in global market share, reflecting the competitiveness of the Indian industry. Structural shifts in services exports, led by software and other business services, and remittances have imparted stability and strength to Indias balance of payments. The net invisible surplus has offset a significant part of the expanding trade deficit and helped to contain the current account deficit to an average of one per cent of GDP since the early 1990s. Gross current receipts (merchandise exports and invisible receipts) and gross current payments (merchandise imports and invisible payments) taken together, at present, constitute more than one half of GDP, highlighting the significant degree of integration of the In dian economy with the global economy. Greater integration into the global economy has enabled the Indian corporates to access high-quality imports from abroad and also to expand their overseas assets, dynamically. The liberalised external payments regime is facilitating the process of acquisition of foreign companies by Indian corporates, both in the manufacturing and services sectors, with the objectives of reaping economies of scale and capturing offshore markets to better face the global competition. Notwithstanding higher outflows, there has been a significant increase in capital inflows (net) to almost five per cent of GDP in 2006-07 from an average of two per cent of GDP during 2000-01 to 2002-03. Capital inflows (net) have remained substantially above the current account deficit and have implications for the conduct of monetary policy and macroeconomic and financial stability. With the significant strengthening of the current and capital accounts, the foreign exchange reserves have more than doubled from US$ 76 billion at the end of March 2003 to US $ 228.8 billion as on August 31, 2007. Financial stability The Indian record on financial stability is noteworthy as the decade of the 1990s has been otherwise turbulent for the financial sector in many EMEs. The approach towards the financial sector in India has been to consistently upgrade it by adapting the international best practices through a consultative process. The Reserve Bank has endeavoured to establish an enabling regulatory framework with prompt and effective supervision, and development of legal, technological and institutional infrastructure. The regulatory norms with respect to capital adequacy, income recognition, asset classification and provisioning have progressively moved towards convergence with the international best practices. The Basel II capital adequacy framework is being implemented in a phased manner with effect from March 2008. We have observed that the Indian banks balance sheets have strengthened considerably, financial markets have deepened and widened and, with the introduction of the real time gross settlements (RTGS) system, the payment system has also become robust. Currently, all scheduled commercial banks are compliant with the minimum capital adequacy ratio (CRAR) of 9 per cent. The overall CRAR for all scheduled commercial banks stood at 12.4 per cent at end-March 2006. The gross non-performing assets of scheduled commercial banks has declined from 8.8 per cent of advances at end March 2003 to 3.3 per cent at end March 2006, while the net non-performing assets have declined from 4.0 per cent to 1.2 per cent during the same period. Financial markets Development of financial markets received a strong impetus from financial sector reforms since the early 1990s. The Reserve Bank has been engaged in developing, widening and deepening of money, government securities and foreign exchange markets combined with a robust payments and settlement system. A wide range of regulatory and institutional reforms were introduced in a planned manner over a period to improve the efficiency of these financial markets. These included development of market micro structure, removal of structural bottlenecks, introduction/ diversification of new players/instruments, free pricing of financial assets, relaxation of quantitative restrictions, better regulatory systems, introduction of new technology, improvement in trading infrastructure, clearing and settlement practices and greater transparency. Prudential norms were introduced early in the reform phase, followed by interest rate deregulation. These policies were supplemented by strengthening of institut ions, encouraging good market practices, rationalised tax structures and enabling legislative and accounting framework. A review of monetary policy challenges The conduct of monetary policy has become more challenging in recent years for a variety of reasons. Many of the challenges the central banks are facing are almost similar which could be summarized as follows: Challenges with globalisation First, globalisation has brought in its train considerable fuzziness in reading underlying macroeconomic and financial developments, obscuring signals from financial prices and clouding the monetary authoritys gauge of the performance of the real economy. The growing importance of assets and asset prices in a globally integrated economy complicates the conduct of monetary policy when it is focused on and equipped to address price stability issues. Second, with the growing integration of financial markets domestically and internationally, there is greater activism in liquidity management with a special focus on the short-end of the market spectrum. There is also a greater sophistication in the conduct of monetary policy and central banks are consistently engaged in refining their technical and managerial skills to deal with the complexities of financial markets. As liquidity management acquires overriding importance, the evolving solvency conditions of financial intermediaries may, on occasions, get obscured in the short run. No doubt, with increasing globalization, there is greater coordination between central banks, fiscal authorities and regulatory bodies governing financial markets. Third, there is considerable difficulty faced by monetary authorities across the world in detecting and measuring inflation, especially inflation expectations. Recent experience in regard to impact of increases in oil prices, and more recently elevated food prices shows that ignoring the structural or permanent elements of what is traditionally treated as shocks may slow down appropriate monetary policy response especially if the focus is on core inflation. Accounting for house rents/prices in inflation measurement has also gained attention in some countries. The central banks are often concerned with the stability/variability of inflation rather than the level of prices. Inflation processes have become highly unclear and central banks are faced with the need to recognise the importance of inflation perceptions and inflation expectations, as distinct from inflation indicators. In this context, credible communication and creative engagement with the market and economic agents have eme rged as a critical channel of monetary transmission. Challenges for emerging market economies It is essential to recognize that the international financial markets have differing ways of judging macroeconomic developments in industrial and emerging market economies. Hence, the challenges and policy responses do differ. First, the EMEs are facing the dilemma of grappling with the inherently volatile increasing capital flows relative to domestic absorptive capacity. Consequently, often the impossible trinity of fixed or managed exchange rates, open capital accounts and discretion in monetary policy has to be managed in what could be termed as fuzzy manner rather than satisfactorily resolved a problem that gets exacerbated due to huge uncertainties in global financial markets and possible consequences in the real sector. Second, in the emerging scenario of large and uncertain capital flows, the choice of the instruments for sterilization and other policy responses have been constrained by a number of factors such as the openness of the economy, the depth of the domestic bond market, the health of the financial sector, the health of the public finances, the countrys inflationary track record and the perception about the credibility and consistency in macroeconomic policies pursued by the country. Further deepening of financial markets may help in absorption of large capital inflows in the medium term, but it may not give immediate succour at the current stage of financial sector development in many EMEs, particularly when speed and magnitude of flows are very high. Some of the EMEs are also subject to adverse current account shocks in view of elevated commodity prices. Going forward, global uncertainties in financial markets are likely to dominate the concerns of all monetary authorities, but, for the EMEs, the consequences of such macro or financial disturbances could be more serious. Third, the banking sector has been strengthened and non-banking intermediation expanded providing both stability and efficiency to the financial sector in many EMEs. Yet, sometimes, aligning the operations of large financial conglomerates and foreign institutions with local public policy priorities remains a challenge for domestic financial regulators in many EMEs. Further, reaping full benefits of competition in financial sector is somewhat limited in many EMEs. Large players in developed economies compete with each other intensely, while it is possible that a few of them dominate in each of the EMEs financial markets. A few of the financial intermediaries could thus wield dominant position in the financial markets of these countries, increasing the concentration risk. While it is extremely difficult to envision how the current disturbances in financial markets will resolve, the focus of many EMEs will be on considering various scenarios and being in readiness with appropriate policy strategies and contingency plans. Among the factors that are carefully monitored, currency markets, liquidity conditions, globally dominant financial intermediaries, impact on real sector through credit channel and asset prices are significant, but the list is certainly not exhaustive. Monetary policy framework in India Objectives The basic objectives of monetary policy, namely price stability and ensuring credit flow to support growth, have remained unchanged in India, but the underlying operating framework for monetary policy has undergone a significant transformation during the past two decades. The relative emphasis placed on price stability and economic growth is modulated according to the circumstances prevailing at a particular point in time and is clearly spelt out, from time to time, in the policy statements of the Reserve Bank. Of late, considerations of macroeconomic and financial stability have assumed an added importance in view of increasing openness of the Indian economy. Framework In India, the broad money (M3) emerged as the nominal anchor from the mid-1980s based on the premise of a stable relationship between money, output and prices. In the late 1990s, in view of ongoing financial openness and increasing evidence of changes in underlying transmission mechanism with interest rates and exchange rates gaining in importance vis-Ã  -vis quantity variables, it was felt that monetary policy exclusively based on the demand function for money could lack precision. The Reserve Bank, therefore, formally adopted a multiple indicator approach in April 1998 where

The Concept Of Civil Society Politics Essay

The Concept Of Civil Society Politics Essay It is important to identify the role of civil society in governance because there is actually a controversy about its role in relationship with the state. For example, Tocqueville (1969) argues that civil society is the most credible alternative to the state for the delivery of public goods. On the other hand, Hegel considers its role as being complimentary to that of the state and he puts a premium on the role of the state. Political Scientists such as Stephan (1998), Stocpol (1992) and Keane (1998) agree that civil society organisations are pre-requisite for making good governance. The World Bank and the United Nations also share the view that there can be no good governance without civil society. The term civil society is itself a subject of many debates. In order to identify the role of civil society in governance, It will be necessary to clarify the context in which the term is been discussed in this paper. Even the notion of good governance is contestable and as such will also require some clarifications. Doornbos (2003:4) agrees that there has hardly been a consensus about its core meaning. In this essay therefore, attempts will be made, using available literature to define the terms civil society and good governance, explain the inter-face between the two concepts, identify the roles of civil society in governance, give a brief description of our case study, which in this instance is South Africa, analyse the impact of civil societies in relationship with good governance in South Africa and conclude on the basis of my findings. The Concept of Civil Society. Civil society is pluralistic in meaning. Perhaps the most profound and enduring definition of the term is that of Locke(1963), who describes civil society as a contract between equals founded on the basis of voluntarism. Tocqueville (op. cit.) builds on the definition provided by Locke and extends the concept further by introducing the idea of collective action as a way of curbing state tyranny for the purpose of producing the common good. Thus, the notion of civil society as a model of self-governance through voluntary effort for the delivery of common good was first introduced. Also, the ideas of voluntarism and collective action projected by these authors form the basis of democracy which is crucial for civil society. Friedman and Mckaiser argue that civil society and democracy are interdependent. According to them, democracy is the vehicle through which civil society can acquire a voice to speak for the people. More recently, Edwards(2005) while exploring the ideas of some modern philosophers who project the idea of civil society as the public sphere (Habermas 1989) and the good society( Kant 1970), concludes that the idea of civil society remains compelling because it brings out the best in us and establishes lasting solutions for issues of inequalities, social injustice and poverty. Cohen and Arato (1992) distinguish civil society from the state and market and argue that it could become the needed instrument for expanding civil rights and democracy. This interpretation of the concept emphasises the idea of democracy which is also considered a necessary condition for good governance. There are many other interpretations of this term by different theorists, but for the purpose of this discourse, civil society will encompass all collective actions by voluntary organisations within the public sphere for the purpose of delivering the common good. It will include activities of Non- Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Social movements, informal and formal communal groups which collaborate with other institutional pillars to deliver goods of public value. The Concept of Good Governance. Governance as a word connotes control, regulations and order. Court, Hyden and Mease (2004: 16) describe governance as a system of regulations and rules within which social actors must take decisions for the purpose of creating social order. Swilling (1997) agrees that governance is the relationship between power structures to create a civic public realm However, the idea that good governance is dependent on civil society makes the concept complex and pluralistic in meaning too. According to Warren (1999), liberal democrats will define a government as good only if it has the following attributes; freedom of information and freedom of the press, citizens capacity building strategy, upholds the fundamental human rights of citizens, encourages collective action and decision making, provides avenue for public opinion and institutional checks and balances. Evans (2012) advances another idea of good governance premised on integrity in public administration. The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Transparency International (TI) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) are some of the advocates of integrity as new public management strategy for the purpose of achieving accountable, transparent and responsible public institutions (ibid). In this model, the OECD identifies eight different criteria for good governance, which it calls ethics infrastructure. They are; political commitment to integrity, effective legal frame work, efficient accountability mechanisms, workable codes of conduct, professional socialisation of staff, supportive public service conditions, an ethics coordinating body; and an active society performing a watchdog role. In this arrangement therefore, civil societies are assumed to be integrity agents and they are expected to monitor the activities of public institutions to ensure accountability, transparency, competence and responsiveness in public administration (ibid). Grindle (2004), while criticizing modern day advocates of good governance agenda for not putting in place a priority list, advances the idea of good enough governance , which to him is more realistic. This model embodies important issues relating to culture, context and priority national developmental goals. It is evident from the discourse above that good governance means different things in different context, but it has certain common attributes such as poverty reduction (Stapenhurst Pelizzo, 2002),accountability, transparency, minimum level of corruption, competent and efficient public service (op. cit.). These attributes will inform the parameter for determining the roles of civil society in good governance in this research. The Inter-face between Civil Society and Good Governance. It is also obvious from the discourse above, that the notions of civil society and good governance are closely linked. The two concepts share many distinct positive attributes necessary for achieving poverty reduction, sustainable development and economic stability and they are perceived as proffering solutions to most of the worlds problems, irrespective of whether they are local, regional or global(Roy 2008). However, Pelizzo (2011) contends that civil societies can become catalysts for the entrenchment of good governance only and when they make a demand on the political class to check and improve on the quality of governance. Uphoff (1986) also argues that civil socities are able to achieve greater level of development when they are independent from bureaucratic controls. The Roles of Civil Society in Governance. Civil societies play very important roles in governance. In the first instance, as advocates of the good society, they help to promote democratic principles and defend democratically elected governments. Secondly, they act as watchdogs to ensure prudent and efficient use of national resources. Lastly, they help to create public awareness on issues relating to good governance and develop a well- informed society. Dewey (1916) argues that the symbol of a good democracy is its ability to develop a well- informed society. Civil societies must be financially, politically and legally independent from government in order for them to effectively fulfil these roles. To succeed, they will also require the support of the political class, other arms of government and institutional pillars such as; anti -corruption bodies, directors of public prosecution, human rights bodies (TI Sourcebook, 2000). South Africa A Brief Description. South Africa as nation was for several years traumatized because of the struggle to overthrow the apartheid regime. However, in 1994, Nelson Mandela became the first president of post -apartheid South Africa, a National Unity Government was established comprising of the countrys majority party; the African National Congress (ANC), the National Party and the Freedom Party. The governments major challenge was to rebuild the nation which had become politically, socially and economically devastated by so many years of conflict under the apartheid regime. The government immediately set up a Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), to address the issues of social inequalities, social injustice, infrastructural deficit, extreme poverty, massive unemployment deep seated insecurity and myriads of other socio- economic consequences of the years of the oppressive rule. Under the RDP, the government designed a well -coordinated and sustainable programme to be executed with the cooperation of the different arms of government, together with civil society organisations and the private sector. The objective was to rebuild the nation within a peaceful and stable environment, characterised by sustainable development and economic growth. The political climate in South Africa changed significantly; the country attempted to embrace some of the neo- liberal economic policies of the West to come up with its own unique system which Andreason (2006) refers to as predatory liberalism. In this model, the ruling African National Congress (ANC) adopted a strategy that enabled it to consolidate economic power in itself and effectively ward off opposition. It is pertinent to state that there is a belief in some quarters that the anti apartheid struggle was inspired by civil society organisations. This notion cannot be correct in view of the earlier claim that democracy and civil society are intimate bedfellows. The struggle that brought about the fall of apartheid in South Africa can best be described as resistance against racial oligarchy. Civil Society Organisations and Their Impact on Good Governance in South Africa The post- apartheid government between 1994 and early 2000, attempted to run an open system which enabled civil society organizations to participate in decision making. Friedman and Kihato (2004) assert that the government created a formal avenue for all citizens to participate in policy making, their criticism however was that organizations were not given equal opportunities for participation. It appeared that government concern was to remain in control. Friedman and Kihato observe that the government seemingly acceptance of civil society was a faà §ade to silence them by integrating them into formal state structure like the National Economic Development Council. Fioramonti (2005) reports that though there were many civil society organizations covering a wide range of developmental objectives; their impact could not be felt because government had withdrawn much of its financial support and many of their leaders had taken up political appointments. This emphasises the importance of political and financial autonomy from the state if civil society organizations are to effectively play their roles. The post- apartheid government of the ANC failed to deliver on its national economic plan of 1996 and there was little or no demand by the civil society organizations on government to give an account of its stewardship. Habib and Kotze observe that the government adopted a centralist approach and other developmental partners were completely alienated from the policy decision making process. As the economic crises deepened in South Africa, the ruling party abdicated from providing goods of public value to the citizenry, some interest groups attempted to fill the vacuum left by government. They established crises committees in rural areas to challenge some of the state policies which they considered oppressive and designed to further pauperize the citizenry. The relationship between the government and the civil society organizations became more tensed. Fioramonti (op. cit.) reports that in 1997, Nelson Mandela criticized civil society organizations for not been democratically accountable and also accused them of being agents in the service of foreign donors Huxtable, Smith and Villalon (2005) further report that former President Mbeki in the bid to discredit foreign- based NGOs severally accused them of not being accountable and wanting to control home- based civil society organizations. Fioramonti (op. cit.) concludes that the division that developed within the civil soc iety organisations in South Africa coupled with fierce state opposition made it difficult for them to engage with government on issues of national development. Post- apartheid South Africa has undergone a period of progressive political stability between 1994 and 2007 which led to the establishment of structures for the consolidation of its fledgling democracy. The civil society organisations have also grown in number and influence. Thomas(2004) adduces that the increasing independence of these organisations from the apron of the state together with the influence of neo- liberal economies have helped to build a strong democratic structure for the state. Since the inception of the Jacob Zumas administration in 2009, civil society organisations have made a lot of impact at national, provincial and local government levels. For example, a coalition of civil society organisations namely; the AIDS Consortium, the AIDS Law Project, the National Association of People Living with Aids and Treatment Action Campaign influenced a change in governments policy on HIV and AIDS (Johnson 2006). Friedman and Mckaiser note that focussed civil society organisations with predominant black membership have not allowed racial sentiments prevent them from challenging government on any policy which is not deemed to be in the interest of the masses, in spite of the overwhelming black support for the current administration. This non- racial posture of some of these organisations have ensured a more responsive democracy and by implication good governance, in that the interest of the society takes precedence over every other consideration. However, civil society organisations in South Africa have been criticised for not representing the poor adequately. The vulnerable groups such as the unemployed, workers in the informal sector and casual workers have no avenue for informed representation in governance. The lack of adequate representation of this group in policy decision making has made it difficult for government to effectively address the issue of poverty reduction. There is glaring evidence that government has not been able to align itself with the aspiration of the poor. For example, Friedman and Mckaiser allege that the Centre for Policy Studies reported that in the early 1990s, government devoted a lot of energy to formulate policies that will extend housing mortgage to the poor in spite of clear evidence that the poor were not interested in mortgage facilities. The lack of identity with the grassroots has some negative implications for the civil society organisations. First, the gap has prevented them from building a relationship of trust amongst the ordinary people, to enable the civil society organisations garner support to challenge governments policies which are deemed to be anti people. Friedman and Mckaiser argue that there is a belief amongst South African grassroots that civil society organisations are elitists and many are sceptical about their motives for organizing pro- poor campaign. Secondly, the void in relationship has prevented them from building a well -informed society which can engage government on issues of national developments. For example, it is reported that many poor communities in South Africa erroneously belief that private companies and not government provide potable water and as such are responsible for their inability to access water. On the other hand, some evidence exists to show that civil society organisations actually identify with the plight of the poor. For example, between 1990 and 2009, civil society organisations like COSATU and its allies made some efforts to address the issue of poverty reduction through Basic Income Grant Campaign (Friedman and Mckaiser). The problem however appears to be that their inability to embed themselves amongst the grassroots, have prevented them from fully appreciating the struggles of the poor and from effectively representing the poor. Another handicap to some civil society organisations role in good governance in South Africa is in the area of political affiliation to the ruling party. For example, COSATU which is deemed to be the largest civil society organisation in South Africa is an ally of the ANC. COSATU is seen as been reluctant to form a coalition with other civil society organisations on issues which might appear to be critical of the ruling ANC government, even when they are in the best interest of the masses. It is alleged that COSATU tend to highlight the governments achievements, while keeping mute in the areas of its failures (Friedman and Mckaiser). Again this point underscores the importance of political autonomy by civil society organisations if they are to play their roles as watchdogs effectively. Civil society organisations in South Africa have recorded some degree of success in the area of influencing governments policy on women liberation. Tripp (2001) argues that political changes in the early 1990s coupled with campaigns by civil society organisation transformed the face of womens activism in Africa. According to her, the development opened the door for women to be engaged in civic education, leadership training and run for political office. The most outstanding example in South Africa is Winnie Mandela, former wife of ex- president Nelson Mandela who contested for office under the ANC in year 2009. Conclusion Flowing from the above, civil society organizations have had a positive impact in ensuring good governance in some aspects in South Africa, but in others, they have not done so well. Several reasons are responsible for their limited impact. First, their inabilities to disentangle themselves politically and financially from the ruling ANC party have led to some compromise. For example, COSATU has failed to engage the ANC government on issues that would project it as being disloyal to its close ally (the ANC), even when those issues might be in the interest of the society at large. Second, their inabilities to deepen their roots amongst the poor and effectively represent the grassroots in national debates constitute an obstacle. Third, their disposition to devote much of their energy / resources only to pursue individual concerns / interests, while neglecting to uphold civil liberties, democratic principles and structures poses a threat to their very survival. If civil society organisations are to effectively play their roles in securing good governance in South Africa, they need to severe close ties with the ruling party, source for foreign donor institutions for financial support and re -strategize domestically to have a strong home support to be able to uphold democratic principles, defend the rights of the people and make government accountable to the people.